Underepresentation of Women in Positons of Authority.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1 Introduction The focus of this chapter is to review critically and synthesize relevant knowledge about how and when specific levels of instruments and/ or policy interventions work to empower women and thereby increase gender equality, as stated by the World Bank (2001). Decision-making procedures should be changed to make room for female influences, styles and characteristics as well as in implementation. Participation of women in decision-making processes should the corner stone of Zimbabwe’s ethos as a democratic nation. Zimbabwe should take an active role in promoting gender balance in decision-making.It is important to have balanced participation of women and men at all levels of decision making. Gender equality is central to human development and to the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as well as to the enhancement of development effectiveness, (UNDP, 2011). MDGs attach great importance to gender equality and women's empowerment in all facets of life. Gender mainstreaming is one of the strategies that the UN utilises to promote the integration of gender perspectives into the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes (UNDP, 2011).Gender equity is giving boys and girls, women and men equal opportunities in the utilisation of personal capabilities to realize full human rights (UNDP, 2011). There are many studies that have been done by scholars across the world to find association between women empowerment and socio- economic performance. There is empirical evidence that the promotion of gender equity leads to better economic performance of the concerned societies.One such study was done by Stephan Klasen who said that gender gaps undermined â€Å"the ability of women to be effective agents of economic process. Societies with greater female employment opportunities are less prone to corruption and poor governance†, (Klasen, 2006:151). 2. 2 Overview of globa l efforts on gender equality Despite efforts made to ensure that female representation is achieved at all levels of governance, women are still underrepresented in many government and non-government organizations, particularly in positions of power and leadership.According to Campbell (2003:7-8), women’s current position is the result of the historical fact that Zimbabwe’s transition from white colonial rule did not dismantle the structures of patriarchy or oppression, which happen to serve the current regime just as well. 2. 3 Historical Background of Gender Equality According to a UN report of 1997, gender equality, also known as sex equality or sexual equality, is the goal of the equality of the genders, stemming from a belief in the injustice of myriad forms of gender inequality.This goal includes making women’s rights equal to men's and also making men’s rights equal to women's. 1972-1980s Although the first United Nations Conference on the Human Env ironment in Stockholm, 1972 saw the establishment of the UN Environment Program (UNEP), officially linked the physical environment and society in its title, in the 1960s and 1970s social issues were still largely disconnected from environmental policies and programs.When the World Conservation Strategy living resource conservation for sustainable development the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) was launched in 1980, the focus of that document on social-environmental linkages still was presented in a gender-neutral way. 1985The Third United Nations Women’s Conference in Nairobi in 1985, however, was among the first international forum that made explicit the linkages between sustainable development and women’s involvement and empowerment as well as gender equality and equity. In the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies, the environment was included as an area of concern for women. During the Nairobi conference in 1985, UNEP hosted a special Session on Women and the Environment, and UNEP’s Senior Women Advisors Group (SWAG) was established to advice the organization on bringing a gender perspective in its environmental program. 990s In the run-up to the World Summit of 2002, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNCED, held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, the UN Secretariat for UNCED, UNEP and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) as well as NGOs such as WEDO and World Wildlife Fund, undertook a number of advocacy activities that reflected the conclusions reached at the 1985 Nairobi Non-governmental Organization-Forum workshops, that stated: â€Å"The growth of women’s power and the sustainability of development are ecologically tied. Environmental Liaison Centre (ELC, 1985). They underlined that women not only bear the highest costs of environmental problems, but as managers of primary resources, also have the greatest potential for contributing to the solution of the crisis. The advocacy activities during the UNCED process resulted in a reasonably Agenda 21, not only including more than 145 references to the specific roles and positions of women in environment and sustainable development, but also a separate Chapter 24 entitled ‘Global action for women towards sustainable development’.This chapter acknowledges the need for a broad participation of women as major group at all governmental levels and in all UN agencies related activities in sustainable development, as well as the need for the integration of a gender perspective on sustainable development planning and implementation. The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing (1995) identified environment as one of twelve critical areas for women.Section K of the Beijing Platform for Action, on women and the environment, asserted that â€Å"women have an essential role to play in the development of sus tainable and ecologically sound consumption and production patterns and approaches to natural resource management† (paragraph 246). 2000s Five years later, at the Millennium Summit in New York, world leaders promised in the Millennium Declaration â€Å"to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women as effective ways to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to stimulate development that is truly sustainable†.This vision was reflected in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), including MDG 1, eradicate extreme poverty, MDG 3 promote gender equality and empower women, and MDG 7 ensure environmental sustainability. However, until now, in governmental reporting on MDG 7 environmental linkages to gender equality are neglected. As input for the World Summit on Sustainable Development, women as major group prepared two documents (ECOSOC/UN, 2001 and 2002), in which progress on the implementation of Agenda 21 from a gender perspective was reviewed.It was concluded th at at international, national and local levels important steps had been taken, but that these were rather scattered and that most were of an ad hoc character. The review showed that there has been no real integration of gender issues into global environment and sustainable development policies and activities, let alone a thorough mainstreaming of gender concerns into these areas. Instead of real implementation, more commitments were made.Principle 20 of the Johannesburg Declaration of the World Summit on sustainable Development (2002) reads: â€Å"We are committed to ensure that women’s empowerment and emancipation, and gender equality are integrated in all activities encompassed within Agenda 21, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. † Among the 153 paragraphs of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) 30 refer to gender aspects.These deal with: benefits of sustainable development to women; the elimination of violence an d discrimination; access to health services; access to land and other resources (particularly in Africa); the enhancement of the role of women in resources management; education for all; participation of women; gender mainstreaming; and gender specific information and data. Major advocacy efforts resulted in a decision by the Commission on Sustainable Development at its 11th session in 2003 to make gender a cross-cutting issue in all its upcoming work up until 2015.In a global context in which gender inequality proves to be one of the most pervasive forms of inequality (UNDP, 2005), the international community during the 10-year Review of the Beijing Platform for Action, recommitted itself to the global goal of gender equality and the empowerment of women. One of the areas of disparity between males and females is related to the difference in their employment status which is manifested by occupational segregation, gender-based wage gaps, and women’s disproportionate represent ation in informal employment, unpaid work and higher unemployment rates (UNFPA, 2005).As women in developing countries have low status in the community, the activities they perform tend to be valued less; and women’s low status is also perpetuated through the low value placed on their activities (March et al. , 1999). According to the millennium indicators data base of the United Nations, cited in the UNFPA (2005), the percentage of parliamentary seats held by women in 2005 was 16% at world level, 21% in developed countries, and 14% in developing countries.This low representation of women in national parliaments could be due to type of electoral systems in different countries, women’s social and economic status, socio-cultural traditions and beliefs about women’s place in the family and society, and women’s double burden of work and family responsibilities (UNFPA, 2005). Beijing Platform for Action (1995) called on governments to take measures to ensure w omen’s equal access to and full participation in, power structures and decision-making.The outcome document of the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly (2000) reiterated the need to increase the representation of women. The UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) affirmed the need to include women in decision-making with regard to issues of peace and security. In 2006 the 50th Session of the Commission on the Status of Women adopted the agreed-upon conclusions on the equal participation of women and men in decision-making processes, (UN/DAW, 2007).Other important commitments related to women’s political participation in Africa include: Article 4 (l) of the Constitutive Act of the African Union, the Dakar Platform for Action (1994); the African Plan of Action to Accelerate the Implementation of the Dakar and Beijing Platforms for Action for the Advancement of Women (1999); the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003); and the African Union’s Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa (2004).In Zimbabwe gender disparities characterise all aspects of development with Zimbabwe ranked at â€Å"130 in the global gender-related development index according to the (Human Development Report, 2007/2008), reflecting the generally low status of women with respect to access, control and ownership of economic resources and positions in decision-making processes†.This is despite the promulgation of various laws, ratification and accession to regional and international declarations, conventions and protocols earmarked for creating an enabling environment for the accomplishment of justice and equality between men and women. The status of women in Zimbabwe has been noticeably affected by the economic problems facing the country as well as the persistence of discriminatory practices.The country has introduced â€Å"policy and legal measures to promote gender equ ality including the National Gender Policy and specific domestic violence legislation†, (UN, 2010); but in Zimbabwe women trail behind men on measures of economic empowerment â€Å"such as labour force participation, wage equality and representation in senior positions†, (World Economic Forum, 2010:318). A key barrier to gender equality is the discrimination stemming from the â€Å"dual system of law, where customary laws continue to disadvantage women, particularly in the family†, (Thabethe, 2011:8).Zimbabwe adopted â€Å"women in power† and â€Å"decision-making† as two of its priority areas under the Beijing Declaration (1995). The report by UNFPA (2010) notes that â€Å"the achievements made by Zimbabwe in terms of promoting gender equality at national level such as the appointment of the first female Vice-president in 2005, the drafting and launching of the National Gender Policy in 2004 and the enacting of progressive legislation such the Dom estic Violence Act and the Sexual Discrimination Act were landmark decisions.Labour laws have also been amended to reflect gender equality priorities. 2. 4 The Zimbabwe National Gender Policy (2004) According to the Republic of Zimbabwe, (2004), the vision of this policy is to have a â€Å"society in Zimbabwe where there is economic, political, religious and social equality and equity among women and men in all spheres of life and at all levels†. It was said that it anchored on the protection and respect of the rights of the individual.The Zimbabwe government went further highlighting that â€Å"the policy’s goals is to eliminate all negative economic, social and political policies, cultural and religious practices that impede equality and equity of the sexes; to mainstream gender in all aspect of the development process and to ensure sustainable equity, equality and empowerment of women and men in Zimbabwe in all spheres of life†, (Republic of Zimbabwe, 2004).I n 1997, together with other SADC governments, Zimbabwe signed the SADC Declaration on Gender and Development together with its Addendum on the Prevention and Eradication of Violence against Women and Children sets out to enhance equal participation of women and men in national development. Based on these national, regional and international instruments, the National Gender Policy will facilitate the designing and implementation of policies that redress gender imbalances in all spheres and levels of life as part of fulfilling its commitments.The National Gender Policy recognises the fact that women constitute more than 52 per cent of the population of Zimbabwe. It is therefore important that their representation and participation in the development process should be commensurate with this numerical reality. 2. 4. 2 Policy principles The Zimbabwe government (2004) indicated that based on the â€Å"national ethos of democracy, unity, equity, development and self-sufficiency, sets out to enhance equal participation of women and men in national development†.The policy was said to be in line with the need for economic growth, sustainable development, social justice and recognition and respect of human rights. However it is critical to recognise that gender discrimination has its basis in cultural values, beliefs and practices. In this regard, the National Gender Policy is premised on the following principles: †¢ A recognition that issues of development, human development in particular are concerned with equity, equality, participation, association, social justice and human rights. Gender discrimination is a serious impediment to development that affects the whole country and thus needs to be eliminated through appropriate individual and collective strategies. †¢ The prevalence and demonstration of political will and commitment to foster growth and enhance equity is a prerequisite to ensure the successful implementation of the National Gender Policy. †¢ A participatory approach that entails broad consultation and involvement of both women and men in all spheres of development guarantees success of the transformation of society to promote democracy, equality and equity between women and men. All Government policies must acknowledge women and men as equal and important human resources for development. This equality and equity of women and men is anchored on the protection and respect of the rights of the individual. 2. 5 Women in Zimbabwe Women’s status in Zimbabwe has been significantly affected by the economic problems facing the country as well as the persistence of discriminatory practices. The country has introduced policy and legal measures to promote gender equality including National Gender Policy and specific domestic violence legislation, (UN, 2010).Although Zimbabwe has achieved gender parity in primary school education, there remains a gender gap in secondary and tertiary education enrolments. Further, wom en trail behind men on measures of economic empowerment, such as â€Å"labour force participation, wage equality and representation in senior positions†, (World Economic Forum, 2010:318). A key barrier to gender equality is the discrimination stemming from the â€Å"dual system of law, where customary laws continue to disadvantage women, particularly in the family†, (Thabethe, 2011:8). . 6 Laws, Policies and Frameworks to Ensure Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women and Girls, (UN/ZIMBABWE, 2012). The frameworks will contribute to progress towards the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, specifically MDG 3: promote gender equality and empower women. To address this challenge, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCT) will support key governance institutions in policy and legislative formulation and implementation.Support will, therefore, be rendered to Government to put in place laws and policies that increase the participation of wom en in decision-making bodies and positions in both the private and public sectors. Moreover, the UN will support measures to ensure that the percentage of the national budget allocated to women and girls’ programs is increased (UN/Zimbabwe, 2012). The UN will work towards ensuring ratification, domestication, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation of laws and policies that promote gender equality, human rights, and women and girls empowerment.Efforts will be made to mainstream gender into all Zimbabwe United Nations Development Assistance Framework (ZUNDAF) outcomes using a cross sectoral approach. An estimated amount of USD 20 million will be sourced from the UNCT and development partners for this outcome (UN/Zimbabwe, 2012). In Zimbabwe, gender disparities characterise all aspects of development, with Zimbabwe ranked at 130 in the global gender related development index according to the Human Development Report 2007/2008, reflecting the generally low status of women with respect to access, control and ownership of economic resources and positions in decision-making processes.This is despite the promulgation of various laws and the signature, ratification and accession to several regional and international declarations, conventions and protocols aimed at creating an enabling environment for the attainment of equity and equality between men and women. 2. 7 Structures that enhances subordination of Women in Politics The traditional female/male roles are deeply ingrained and glorified in all Zimbabwean languages, in education, the mass media, and advertising.The society’s perception of women is for the most part negative with the best women as mothers, and their capabilities and capacities going virtually unnoticed (Obura, 1991). Such sex stereotypes and social prejudices are inappropriate in the present society where female/male roles and male-headed families are no longer the norm. According to the United Nations (2000), sex stereo-types a re among the most firmly entrenched obstacles to the elimination of discrimination, and are largely responsible for the denigration of the role and potential of women in society. The subordinate osition of women in the society seems to legitimize their exclusion from participation in political and decision making processes. Many stories depict women as disloyal, disagreeable, untrustworthy, and even gullible (Kabira and Nzioki, 1995:57). Even today women continue to be left out of official records and when recognised, they are addressed as those who need welfare assistance rather than actors in the historical process. The heavy under-representation of women in political life and most decision making processes in Zimbabwe needs to be closely investigated.Karl (1995:185) explores some of the factors affecting women’s political participation worldwide. Among the factors she cites include: household status; work related rights (maternity leave, job security, provision of child-ca re); employment and remuneration; double burden of work; education and literacy; access to financial resources; legal rights; traditions, cultural attitudes and religion; socialization and self-reliance; violence against women; the mass media; health; ability to control fertility.Cooper and Davidson (1982:44) sought to study the problems that women in leadership positions generally face. They found that women face stress from both the work, home and social environments. In addition, women have to acquire male leadership and managerial skills (for example, being aggressive, assertive, confident), as well as multiple demands in running a career and a family. Other sources of stress include difficult working relationships with male bosses and colleagues, sexual harassment, limited opportunities for promotion and career development.The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA) (2003) notes that gender equity is the process of being fair to women and men. To e nsure this fairness, measures must often be available to compensate for historical and political disadvantages that prevent women from otherwise operating on a levelled playing field with men. Equity leads to equality. Gender equality implies that women and men enjoy the same status.Gender equality means that women and men have equal opportunities for realizing their full human rights and potential to contribute to political, economic, social and cultural development, and to benefit from results thereof. Gender equality includes both quantitative and qualitative aspects. 2. 8 Enhancing Women’s Participation in Political Power Structures and Decision-Making A survey carried out among national parliaments in the world by the Inter-Parliamentary Union (1997) revealed that women make up less than 5 per cent of world’s heads of state, heads of major corporations, and top positions in international organizations.Five years down the line, the IPU has established that women ar e not just behind in political and managerial equity, they are a long way behind. Politics is everyone’s business and affects the lives of each of us. The more women are associated in numbers in political decision making process in governments, the more they can change the modalities and outcomes of policies. 2. 9 Discriminatory Family Code There is no legal discrimination against women and girls with respect to inheritance rights.In 1997, the Administration of Estates Act was amended to make the surviving spouse and the children of a deceased person as his or her major beneficiaries, as opposed to their heir who was mainly the eldest son. The Act provides that the â€Å"matrimonial home, whatever the system of tenure under which it was held and wherever it may be situated, remains with the surviving spouse. This includes household goods and effects†, (United Nations, 1996:60). The Act applies to all marriages, civil and customary, (United Nations Committee, 2010:12).D espite these laws, the Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions reports that â€Å"women are still denied their inheritance rights in practice due to discriminatory attitudes, women’s’ lack of awareness of their rights or women’s’ lack of resources to claim their rights†, (Bird et al, 2004:168). The Chronic Poverty Research Centre reports that only â€Å"37. 31 % of widows inherited majority of assets after their spouses in 2005/2006†, (Chronic Poverty Research Centre, 2011:20). Women’s position in the family can also be gleaned from their participation in household decision making.Data from the 1999 Demographic Health Survey provides a snapshot of gender equality in household decision making in Zimbabwe. For large household purchases, 42% of married women reported that â€Å"decisions were made jointly with their husbands, 36% reported that decisions were made solely by their husbands and 16% reported decision were made solely by them selves†, (Demographic Health Survey Zimbabwe, 1999). Furthermore, discriminatory attitudes and practices of authorities place further barriers in women’s access to justice.For instance, according to the US Department of State, authorities generally consider domestic violence to be a private matter, (United State Department, 2009). With respect to prosecutions of marital rape, the government reports that the prosecution of marital rape requires the consent of the Attorney General which may discourage women from reporting. Further, entrenched institutional and societal attitudes that deny marital rape as a form of violence against women also prevent women from seeking justice, (United Nations, 2010:13-14).Female genital mutilation is not widespread in Zimbabwe, but is practised by the Remba ethnic group, which represents a small proportion of the population. Within this group, mutilation is combined with infibulations, which involves closing the outer lips of the vulva, ( US Department of State 2002. Limitations on women’s reproductive rights also infringes upon women’s physical integrity in Zimbabwe. Abortion in Zimbabwe is permitted to save a woman’s life or health, in the event of rape or incest or due to foetal impairment. It is not permitted on request or on social or economic grounds, (United Nations Population Division, 2007).The 2006 Demographic and Health Survey found that overall 60% of married women use contraception and 58 % use modern methods of contraception, (Demographic Health Survey, 2006). 2. 9. 1 Son Bias Gender disaggregated data on rates of infant mortality and early childhood nutrition are not available for Zimbabwe. With respect to access to education, the World Economic Forum reports that Zimbabwe has reached gender parity in primary school enrolments which indicates that there is no preferential treatment of sons with respect to primary school education.However, a gender gap persists in secondary and tert iary education enrolments, suggesting that â€Å"the education of sons continues to be more highly valued than the education of daughters†, (World Economic Forum, 2010:318). Further, the government reported that â€Å"women and girls carry the primary burden of care in the context of HIV which suggests that daughter in Zimbabwe may experience greater time poverty compared to sons†, (United Nations 2010:48). Gender inequality is embedded in the patriarchal, social, religious and cultural stereotypes in Zimbabwean life.UNFPA (2008) indicated that â€Å"the continued presence of long standing cultural and traditional practices that discriminate against women have constrained the progress of achieving gender equality†. Gender inequality hurts the interest not only of women but also of men through societal connections. It often stems from social structures that institutionalise conceptions of gender differences. Cultural stereotypes are ingrained in â€Å"both men a nd women and these stereotypes are possible explanation for gender inequality† (Rhoads et al, 1996:130).McFadden (2004:42) proposes that women have been traditionally viewed as â€Å"being caring and nurturing and are designated to occupations which require such skills†. While these skills are culturally valued they were typically associated with domesticity so occupations requiring these same skills are not economically valued. Men have â€Å"traditionally been viewed as the breadwinners so jobs held by men have been historically economically valued† (McFadden, 2004:42).However, these practices and public attitudes towards the advancement of women and gender equality have not changed at the same pace as policy and institutional frameworks. Mtintso (1999:37) observes and describes the under-representation and discrimination against women as an â€Å"anathema to democracy†. She argues that â€Å"socialisation of women right from childhood directs them away from activities of power. Women tend to be less ambitious and internalises society’s expectation that they are not suited to policy making positions†. (Mtintso, 1999:37).Cooper et al (1994:92) supports Mtintso’s argument when he mentions that â€Å"it starts from the family level where the traditionally designated leader is a man†. The same principle is â€Å"still dominant in our society† (Cooper et al, 1994:92). Leary et al (1994:216) reiterates that â€Å"women have the will but are discriminated against by men in authority who refuse to promote them and by legislation which limit their opportunities†. Because of this ideology, very few women made it in politics. McFadden (1994†142) paints patriarchy as a â€Å"huge setback for women in Zimbabwe, as the society is patriarchal in nature†.Morley (2005:112) alludes to the fact that â€Å"this societal norm leaves out women from the corridors of power and men are left to address issues that mostly affect women such as exploitation, marginalisation, powerlessness, and violence†. Watson (2009:87-93) affirms that â€Å"the under-representation of women remains a big concern in decision making processes and will continue to seriously undermine the realization of equitability in womanhood†. Mtintso (1999:40) argues that â€Å"patriarchal attitudes have become so entrenched that they are literally taken as natural†.She further maintains that â€Å"the government decision bodies are so patriarchal and power is so obvious, women are in danger of being swallowed by its culture, ethos, values and priorities. † This point was supported by Cooper et al (1994) when they argue that â€Å"women fear moving against the mainstream and in that way find themselves compromising and promoting the very patriarchal agenda†. According to Campbell (2003:285), the patriarchal model of the liberation struggle was â€Å"the basis upon which the Afri can government was couched and had been entrenched into law†.Cheater and Gaidzanwa (1996:197) postulate that â€Å"tradition was employed in the first decade of Zimbabwe’s independence to spread the general message of women’s re-subordination†. Black women were considered as â€Å"chattels of black men† (Zuidberg, McFaddens and Chigudu, 2004; 112). Culture prevents women from participating in decision-making processes and the distinction is critical to make in light of the gender differences rooted in the culture and history of Zimbabwe where women have been marginalised in decision-making positions.Cooper et al (1994:100) argued that â€Å"cultural barriers seem to be difficult to remove since they are subtly enforced by both men and women, they are seen as immutable, but one should bear in mind that culture is dynamic, it needs programmes to advocate for popular participation of women in politics from high schools and influence the school curricu la in this line†. Cheater and Gaidzanwa (1996:189-200) perceive traditional roles of men and women as â€Å"still in place due to gender stereotype†.Women still find it challenging to stand and compete with men in the political arena. Cheater et al (1996:189-200) noted the idea of a woman â€Å"to stand to compete with men as unacceptable behaviour, an unheard of kind of a scenario†. 2. 10 Conclusion Given the above scenarios, there is need to scrutinize the conditions under which women are subjected to involvement, participation, and inclusion in key decision-making processes in Zimbabwe and specifically it’s Cabinet.This is because, despite the significant advances made in the policy and legislative reforms arena, the position of women in decision-making positions in the Cabinet of Zimbabwe remains relatively low and is extraordinarily under-representative of women in the highest structures of governance. Gender equality has dominated international debat e on development issues with many intervention mechanisms being invented but to no avail. This demonstrates a gap between policy formulation and the causes of the challenge they are intended to address. Herein lays the core of the problem i. e. the gap between policy and actual implementation.

Hellenistic Art Essay

During the campaign of Alexander the Great as the greatest conqueror of his time, his father, Philip of Macedon tried to unite the Greek city-states. During this time, Hellenistic period was born creating a major advancement on their art. It was also in this period, that a global battle in commerce and cultural influences which are apparently dominated by the Greeks. The Greek Hellenistic period span from 323 B. C. up to the Battle of Actio in 31 B. C. The Hellenistic period paved the way to many transformations of Greek art. Though the Classical concepts in art were not thoroughly abandoned, the birth of the Hellenistic period made the artists create different and unique art concepts. The artists during this time explored and manipulated their imagination on their subject. It was also during this period that higher degree of Naturalism took place as a logical conclusion to great sculptors like Praxitelis and Lysipos whose works demanded for the art representation of the human figure. In a Greek art (Boy Jockey), the bold expression of energy and power during great pressure was represented. The change of focus of the Hellenistic art from religious and naturalistic ideas and concepts to human expressions, psychological concern and theatrical background, paved the way to the sculptures that includes the natural physical surroundings with creative landscaping and theatrical groupings. The Nike of Samothrace is a sculpture that embraced the true meaning and understood the world through the application of certain techniques and aesthetic conventions. The winged goddess with her outstretched wings gracefully prevents the stone from falling due to gravity. The sculpture also represented the physical human presence and the external force within it. The representation evidently speaks for the Greeks acceptance of the physical power of human being and all other external forces acting on it. The Hellenistic art in sculpture also represents human condition, state of mind and inconsequential moments of life. It is represented through sculpture like a sleepy satyr, an old woman, a twist of torso and the swing of Aphrodite’s sandal. The statue of the beautiful Venus was contrasted by the monstrous appearance of Pan who happens to seduce her as she attempts to repel him with her smile. During this period, the statues of Aphrodite, Eros, Dionysius, Pan and Hermaphrodites were manipulated in styles and configurations to give way to the theme of eroticism. In order to represent the unique physical beauty of women and the Greek world, statues of female nudes gain popularity. The statues of Venus in various orientations and poses were created and displayed in halls of many museums i around the world. Among the greatest work that personifies beauty is the sculpture of Venus de Milo. Many Hellenistic sculptors were not contented in depicting the true physical appearance of their subject. They included some variation through express the inner world. These variations were characterized through the depiction of physical characteristics that deceived inner feelings and thoughts. The most important work considered during that time is the statue of Hygea which combined the concepts of Classical Greek art in its refinement and Hellenistic aesthetic ideals on its facial expression of concern to the previous condition that existed before her. Works Cited â€Å"Art of Ancient Greece. † Museum Quality. 29 April 2009 http://www. huntfor. com/arthistory/ancient/anc_greek. htm Green, Peter. Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age. Orion Publishing Group Limited, 2008.

Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome - Essay Example Agranulocytosis is hard to detect and is only visible once the symptoms of the infection start to appear. The symptoms include: mucosal ulcers, sore throat and rising temperatures. Nurses should be aware of these signs and should stop administering of Clozapine at the onset of these symptoms. (Keogh & Doyle 2008) Neuroleptic malignant syndrome is another side effect of psychopharmacology. It is ‘an idiosyncratic reaction to neuroleptic medications’ that may be life threatening (Keogh & Doyle 2008). Though it may occur from using any neuroleptic medication, the main culprit is haloperidol. Many clients start developing symptoms of NMS within a two week time frame. The symptoms include: muscular/lead pipe rigidity, changed autonomic functions like blood pressure, increase in white blood cell count, hyperthermia, tremor and change in the mental status of patients. The nurses should be aware of these signs and immediately stop the medication. Intervention of NMS include: use of dopamine to relax muscles, electroconvulsive therapy to reduce NMS and antipyretics like paracetamol to relax the fever. (Keogh & Doyle 2008) Special nursing care is also very important for NMS patients aside from the interventions named above. NMS patients are to be closely monitored to evaluate their mental and physical states, so that in case of a symptom breakout, early intervention is done at the initial stages of the attack. There should be routine checkups and documentations and all forms of anomalies should also be recorded and reported to relevant medical practitioners. Serotonin syndrome is also a side effect. It is a life threatening reaction to excess serotonin, although it occurs rarely. This happens when serotonin is administered with other drugs that affect the serotonergic system, for instance the tricyclic medication. Symptoms include:

Mplementing PACS and RIS system in radiology department in Amiri Assignment

Mplementing PACS and RIS system in radiology department in Amiri hospital in Kuwait - Assignment Example The systems were also aimed at positively impacting the department’s ability to deal with software and hardware issues that had been a major set back in the department for many years. PACS and RIS system were introduced in Amiri to check the entire systems for errors and backups, to install IMPAX workstations and RIS clients, to configure and modify AGFA products requirements and to have additional modalities to RIS and PACs (Bushong, 1997, p. 67) By implementing the RIS and PACS system, the radiology department of Amiri hospital will be in a position to take appointments for a number of modularity like CT scan, angiography MRI m Ultrasound and fluoroscopy. By the end of the implementation process, the system will be best placed to link the whole Amiri hospital system and will easily process all the hospital staff and patients more so radiology and radiologists pecialists’ information. Following the lengthy, troublesome and stressful experience by patients and the staff in the Amiri radiology department as a result of the old process that the hospital was using which proved to be time consuming and exacting, the management had to seek appreciate alternatives like the RIS, HIS and the PACs systems (Bushong, 1997, p. 83). By implementing the PACS and RIS system correctly, the hospital hoped to attain maximum efficiency of the two systems. The experience in the hospital is expected to be efficient and pleasant after the implementation. PACS and RIS will be able maximize CR and DR effects to meet the current radiology expectations. The implementation of PACs and RIS is expected to receive some objections from the staff after the introduction but this will change as soon as the implementation is over and done correctly ensuring the hospital and especially the radiology department is on the desired track. When applied

To what extent are human bodies products of culture Discuss In Essay

To what extent are human bodies products of culture Discuss In relation to Susan Benson and Anne Balsamo theories and give 2 ex - Essay Example 123); at the same time, it served as an instrument to the expression of one’s culture, beliefs and practices (e.g., tattoos, body piercings, etc.) (Shilling, 2002, p. 68). Nevertheless, cultural influences on the beliefs of the society pose questions about the abilities of the body to satisfy human craving for perfection. The physical limitations of the body, especially in the context of gender, are causes of these commotions. At the spring of technology, the frustrations that bred from these limitations made humans create cybernetic organisms or the cyborgs, concede to cosmetic surgeries, and use equipments that could help correct the issues â€Å"concerning health, beauty and ageing† (Lewis, 2002, p. 294). Because of the increasing attention gained by the human body, several individuals and groups have formulated theories on the bases of these shifts. Theories on Human Body and the Culture As culture affect people’s beliefs and practices in almost all aspects o f living, its influence on human perception about their body has also been inevitable. This is plainly evident particularly in the Western civilizations. Consequently, the collection of research studies and related literature on the account of identity and differences as determined by the body itself, and how humans have proceeded to initiate changes and created new ways to modify the limitations of the natural body which promote control especially in the aspects of health, beauty and aging, have accumulated to unexpected degrees. Subsequently, theories by Foucault, and others, attempt to explain the relationships between the society’s views of the human body, its causes and effects, and the internal and external factors that play a role in the circumstances involved (e.g., human emotions and drives, language, among others) and the current trend of human ascendancy over it (Lewis, 2002, p. 295; Shilling, 2002, p. 65; Balsamo, 1999, p. 20). The presence of social standards and the pressure that it puts on the populace, as well as the submission of the society to these norms, propose that despite the intrinsic diversities that result from â€Å"the modernist ideology of individualism† (Lewis, 2002, p. 295), culture remains to be a crucial and major determinant of how the people view the body and its value. With this, and with the assistance of technology, the human race try to develop the body into the image which suits the idealists view of how the body should be by maintaining health (e.g., exercise and proper diet) and even undergoing cosmetic surgeries; existing in the absence of or surpassing â€Å"bodily flaws, disease, obesity, ageing and (even) death† (Lewis, 2002, p. 295). This is also why bodybuilders, cyborgs and robots, and even those who have anorexia and bulimia exist -- ways in which humans try to demonstrate control over their bodies to achieve what is considered by the society as ideal or within the bounds of social standard s. As a result, experts suggest that what human body is now -- how it is treated, looked at and valued -- is a product of cultures that desire for standardized perfection. Still, the presence of the aforementioned advances towards the â€Å"improvement† of the human body does not mean the complete absence of what is unwanted. Mary Douglas even stated that â€Å"that which is negated is not thereby removed† (as cited in Benson, 2002, p. 124). Hence, people continue to struggle between the threats of the internal and

Psychological Perspectives on Organisation Essay

Psychological Perspectives on Organisation - Essay Example Hence, the knowledge of core psycho analytical concepts becomes important tools to the leadership for understanding the organizational behavior. The understanding of psychoanalytical concepts provides invaluable information regarding the socio-psychological factors that adversely affect the performance outcome of the workforce. Unconscious and repression, transference, envy and rivalry are few major concepts that considerably influence the human nature and consequently the behavior of the organization. Freud, the eminent socio-psychologist has contributed extensively towards understanding of these core psychoanalytical ingredients so that the one is better able to analyze human behavior within the prescribed social norms. Social scientists have corroborated that the psycho-analytical perspectives are important tools for understanding the hidden dynamics of human relationship, especially with regard to corporate culture, social defenses, leadership imperatives, motivation and other paradigms associated with organizational behavior (Levinson, 1972, 2002; DeBoard, 1978; Czander, 1993; Gabriel, 1999). The understanding equips th e leadership with the necessary knowledge to promote confidence building and strengthen interpersonal understanding with the group, within the organization. The theory of cognition tries to explain why and how the events take place and subsequent pattern of behaviour of man under certain condition involving emotional and metaphysical reaction. The role of brain and conscious and unconscious activities of the mind are seen to be the responsible for the general behaviour of man. The conscious and unconscious working of our mind is strongly co-related with our experience of the object reality. The conscious mind understands and interprets the sensations according to the partial or total recall of the events. On the other hand, sub conscious mind may or may not

Measuring Employee Satisfaction Through Use of Employee Satisfaction Essay

Measuring Employee Satisfaction Through Use of Employee Satisfaction Surveys - Essay Example Most of the companies employ survey to gauge their employee’s satisfactions, recruit top prospects and create internal policies. Survey have a twofold advantage; to the employees, they tell them that their input and concerns are important thus boost their morale and loyalty and to the employers, they assist them to map the companies policies. Employee’s survey can be carried out in a manner of ways, depending with the purpose. To begin with, it can be employee Satisfaction Surveys. In essence, the core goal of any employee survey is to gauge employee satisfaction. This type of survey dwells on workplace issues such as benefits, the work environment, commitment to diversity and effective communication. To the management, the feedback from this type of survey helps to paint the real attitude of employees and their opinion concerning the workplace issues. The feedback, also aid the employer to discern the root cause of persistent problems; such as high expenses, low produc tivity or low morale in work. To add, another method is to employ is exit survey. This method is best in organizations plagued with high turnover. Turnovers are very expensive to any organization. The survey is conducted on employees who are leaving the particular organization, and the aim is to elicit their reasons for doing so. Written exit survey has been shown to elicit more honest responses than interviews, which lend themselves to unrealistic and overly rosy scenarios. The data derived from exit surveys can be used to create policies and procedures that aid to boost job satisfaction and hence counter the costly effects of job turnover. Another method generally employed by organizations is customer care surveys. This mode of survey is customer oriented, and is designed to deliver quality services and products to customers, that best answer their needs. Generally, those people who are in constant and direct contact with the customers are better suited to provide information on t he needs of the customers. Consequently, organizations design a customer care surveys to elicit the opinion of the employees and their knowledge about their customers. This mode of survey helps to seal loopholes in customer service delivery and therefore improve areas where service may be lacking, thereby increase their satisfaction. Finally, another mode of survey is survey on specific issues. This kind of survey is conducted whenever companies wish to conduct material changes that affect the employee welfare, such as new insurance providers or changes in working conditions. This kind of survey is designed to elicit the input of the employee and thus reduce chances of the resistance of the new policy at the implementation phase. In order for the survey to be successful, it is important for the management to observe a number of steps. To begin with, the survey must be advertised. The employees have to be informed well in advance. Generally, response rates have been closely linked to the number of times an upcoming survey is announced. The management can do this via emails, memos, bulletin boards or even the organization newsletter. Secondly, it is critical that anonymity is guaranteed by employers who are conducting employee’s survey. Employees may feel threatened, if they hold opinions that differ or does not agree with the company policies. This may make employees choose not to participate in the survey of if

Mary Kay Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mary Kay - Assignment Example One direct selling technique that was employed by Mary Kay was over-the-counter selling. After two financial years, direct sales from the two skin care products led to a 120% increase in the company’s revenue (Davies & Dewhirst, 2005). With respect to Mary Kay’s direct selling strategy, over-the-counter sales persons had to employ excellent interpersonal communication skills in enticing potential consumers to make purchases. Among the necessary requirements for Mary Kay’s direct sales persons included confidence, assertiveness, and persuasiveness (Davies & Dewhirst, 2005). In essence, most sales persons were skilled in expressing friendly demeanors and possessed in-depth knowledge on the products as a means of improving their art of persuasion. Admittedly, the 120% increase in Mar Kay’s revenue was attributable to the advantages of direct selling over other marketing strategies. Among the benefits of direct selling include enhanced customer satisfaction resulting from personalized product deliveries, and minimum marketing risks associated with positioning of products. Contrarily, direct selling strategies like those employed by Mary Kay possess certain setbacks which may include poor quality leads and inability to enhance repeat sales (Palade, 2011). Beauty Control TM is a results-oriented beauty product that allows consumers to get a clear skin within a minimum of only seven days. In essence, Beauty Control TM can be described as a new generation product that acts as a foundation for clear skin. As a new product in the market, the best marketing strategy to employ would be promotional marketing. Basically, promotional marketing entails the use of attractive sales techniques in enticing potential consumers, and influencing them to make purchases. Currently, there are multiple competitors within the beauty products market whose brand reputations are the main source of their competitive advantages in

Research proposal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Research proposal - Assignment Example Talking about the social networking sites, it can be said that the growth of the social networking sites has been largely augmented by the tremendous favoring of the growth prospects of the United States. Like as witnessed in the case of dotcom bubble of the late 1990’s, the mere presence of the social networking sites in the virtual web space does not help in any way in the process of generating revenue. Every social networking site needs to operate on the basis of a business model, which will help in generating revenue for the online business. It is of significant and utmost importance to mention that the business models that are applicable in the case of social networking sites should not only focus on the process of generating monetary value, but also on the lines value creation, identification of the core competencies of the online business as well as proper value communication to the right target audience. Considerable amount of interest also needs to be given on the lin es of creating competitive edge for the online business. It is of considerable importance to mention that an online business is built on four key model components. The first one is the value creation, which distinguishingly addresses the value that will be provided to the customers. The second factor is the issue of target market, which necessarily takes into account the factor of the desired target audience. The third aspect talks about the factor of core competencies which will help in leveraging maximum advantage in regards to the process of generating the business model’s potential strengths and opportunities in the market. The final aspect talks about the revenue prospects that need to be idealized for the purpose of developing the potential business aspects of the online business model (Albarran, 2013, p. 62- 63). It is important to mention that in most cases, though the online media provides free access and use of its online web 2.0 concepts, yet it can be said that th e revenue is generated through the process of cost per impression (CPI), cost per contact (CPC), advertising, lead generation and even licensing deals. However, it is of considerable importance to mention that the technological devices are riding the wave of innovation and are increasingly transforming themselves in regards to shape and size. The bulky laptop and PC has paved the way for tablets and smart phones, thereby playing a major role in regards to device space and capacity. Business models of the online nature in order to keep their connect with the tech savvy masses increasingly are concentrating on the process of adopting their visual offerings of their online products and services. Due to the changing requirements of today’s technological gadget altering masses, the business models are being designed in the platforms of open source (Hinchcliffe and Kim, 2012, p. 8). It needs to be highlighted that the literature review forms a very essential and vital part of the e ntire research proposal. It can be said that while considering the process of moving ahead with the literature review area, a considerable amount of focus needs to be given on the research work that has been done by the past researchers on the same lines. While discussing about literature review, it can be said that the literature review might have been presented from various perspectives of

Executive Summary Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Executive Summary - Assignment Example Studies have shown that women prisoners are more infected by HIV and drug abuse as compare to male prisoners (Dolan et al, 2007). They have been found more exposed to gender based sexual assaults; such female prisoners may found suffering from personality and behaviour disorders, drug use, and unsafe practices such as tattooing with many other disorders that may threat the security of other people around them. Target Audience of the Project: The project is designed to target the female prisoners as this group has been found more prone to gender-based violence and do not receive any or special treatments in prison. To provide quality healthcare services to female prisoners suffering from HIV has become as a challenge for the correctional authorities (Plugge, 2006). Female prisoners constitute a small fraction of population imprisoned. Different females have been found imprisoned due to different reasons. A majority of female prisoners have been found engaged in drug use by injecting t he large amounts of seductive and, on the other hand, majority of other female prisoners have been found HIV carriers. Such women need psychological help, social support and quality healthcare facilities to help them overcome their health issues and to infuse positivity in their minds (Rickford, 2003). It should be kept in mind that the current healthcare programs were initially designed for male inmates as they hold the largest population in jails all around the world and especially in American prisons (Plugge, 2006). All over the world, female prisoners constitute about 5% of the total population imprisoned (Rickford, 2003). The Benefits of the Program: The program is intended to help the female prisoners suffering from HIV. This program is tailored to meet their social, psychological and healthcare needs in the period of distress. Few of the benefits of this program are: It would help in providing information to the female prisoners on HIV. This program would create awareness on how to prevent HIV transmission, treatment process, testing methods and how the risk of HIV can be minimized. The program would help the female prisoners to get a free HIV testing facility along with counselling services. The program would overall benefit the female inmates in diagnosing and treating the HIV, overcoming the other STDs and other diseases that may rise from the uses of drugs especially injections. The program is focused on benefiting the overall health of the female inmates especially their diets and adopting measures that would help them to overcome their nutritional deficiencies. The program is also focused on providing palliative care to terminally ill female prisoners along with facilitating post-exposure prophylaxis to those female prisoners who are already at risk of HIV. The Budget Justification: This program would run on funds collected from government and semi-government institutions. To meet the healthcare requirements of female patients; charities and promo tional campaigns would be launched soon to meet the financial needs of the program. Awareness programs would be launched in colleges and universities to collect funds from the students as well as different marketing strategies would be incorporated to meet the budge requirements and to help people know about the cause. Program Evaluation: The program would be evaluated on the following basis: How soon can we extend

Good Health Essay Example for Free

Good Health Essay It is common to hear people talking about the state of their health. Some say they are in good health, while others talk about their ill health or that of others. But what exactly is good heath and how do we know when we are experiencing it? This article takes a look at that aspect of our lives and explains it in simple terms. Good Health When we are enjoying good health, we feel good, we look good with a good health image and everything about our lives seems to be going well with no major upsets. It means we have plenty of energy to do the things we want to do and we feel happy and contented with our ability to do those things. There is no pain or feeling of stiffness in our body and we are able to exercise freely every day if we wish. Often, when we are in good health it is common to be more active and exercise forms part of the days activities. When we are free of pain, we are able to do a lot more and we feel motivated to do a lot more than when we are experiencing pain. So maintaining a good level of health is important to our lives because it means the absence of pain totally or at least for the majority of the time. Promoting Good Health So what can we do to promote good health? There are lots of things we can do and similarly lots of things we should avoid doing. We should make sure we eat a healthy diet, because we are what we eat and when we only put good things into our bodies, those bodies respond by simply being in better health. That includes healthy meals made up of fresh ingredients as well as any healthy snacks we may want to eat during the day. We should exercise and be active every day, getting plenty of fresh air outdoors and sunshine. Fresh air boosts our energy levels while natural daylight and sunshine boosts our mood, makes us feel happier and also boosts our bodies ability to manufacture its own vitamin D. If we live in a city, we should make a point of getting into the countryside as often as possible to get fresher air and avoid all the pollutants that city air generally tends to have. We should try and be as happy as we can be, facing life with a positive, upbeat attitude and try not to let stress into our lives. We should avoid living a sedentary lifestyle and make sure we get up off the chair as often as we can. Avoiding foods that are processed, contain ligh levels of refined sugar and refined white flour as well as those that contain artificial additives. That usually means eating only fresh produce, fresh fruit and vegetables along with lean meat and fish (if we are not vegetarian), nuts, seeds, legumes and some dairy produce, although this should be kept to a minimum. We should also avoid drinking soda and flavored drinks because of the dangerous levels of refined sugar and/or artificial sweeteners and other additives. Alcohol consumption should be moderate and smoking is a totally bad idea. If we can use our common sense and make sure we live as healthily as we can, then we should enjoy a far better level of health. If we can also keep stress levels down and stay happy, our health will reflect our mood and we will have a longer, happier and healthier life.

Role Of Women In The Indian Armed Forces History Essay

Role Of Women In The Indian Armed Forces History Essay In recorded human history women soldiers have been part of each and every campaign, performing variety of tasks such as ammunition carriers, picking up a weapon of a fallen soldier, washing, mending and cooking. World war II, Vietnam war and technological revolutions affected intake of male recruits in Europe, Asian armies and USA that led to induction of women soldiers to fill the vacancies. The USA has the highest representation of nearly 14 percent women soldiers today, many of whom participated in the Gulf wars. Other European armies also have a healthy number of women soldiers in the armed forces. China has also integrated women into the military over the last 50 years. The pioneers of the integration of the women in South Asia, both in officers and ranks was the Sri Lankan armed forces in year 1984 , followed by India in officers rank in 1991 and Nepal in 2003. Indias decision to induct women officers was based on populist consideration than military necessities. Pakistan, Bang ladesh and Bhutan employ women basically in medical role.  [1]   The recent SC ruling and HC judgement to allow permanent commission  [2]  to women has made all the three services to think as to the future role of women in Indian Armed Forces. The induction of women in Indian Army started with the Grant of Short Service Commission (SSC) for 5 years in the year 1991. Then the time limit for them to serve in the army as been increased over the years and is presently at 14 years. Presently women officers are getting commissioned into the services ie ASC, AOC, EME and combat support arms of Engrs, Signals and AAD, in addition to the Medical Corps. In accordance with the ruling of the apex court the Indian Army has agreed to grant permanent commission to women officers in JAG branch, Army Education Corps and Medical Corps of the Army. However, a number of litigation has been filed for grant of permanent commission into fighting arms like infantry and comb support arm such as Engineers, Artillery, AAD etc. However, before any decision is taken we ne ed to carry out a holistic vew of the integration of women into the Army with two important guiding factors. 3. The debate to integrate women into in more non-traditional roles in the military have been raging since ages. Both for or against this topic have iron clad reasons.  [3]  On one hand some people believe that the increased power of military technology and Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) have led to the realisation that actual confrontation between major powers to be avoided, however any future conflicts would be under the umbrella of technology. This would involve a tech savy force and hence larger employment for women. Also the role of women in our society has changed over time. Also women have served in armed forces since ancient times and the chorus for their integration have only grown louder. In Indian history also numerous examples of women soldiers and officers exists. Rani of Jhansi Brigade of Indian National Army (INA) was formed on 9 Sep 1943 in Singapore under Capt Lakshmi Swaminathan Sehgal who was a doctor by profession. This force operated in the jungles of M alay and was very effective. Also the Nursing Corps of the Indian Army was raised in march 1889 and by 1939-40 their strength grew to 6000 trained nurses. These nurses had served British and Indian troops in India, Aden, Mesopotamia and Egypt during World War I and during World War II they served exceptionally well in different theatres of war in Middle East, Europe, Africa and the Far East. History is replete with stories of women in battle.  [4]  Not only in the western world, but also in the eastern, several examples of the battle are there where women have actively participated. Indian sub-continent also has an age long of history of battles participated by women. Although military profession is considered as the male-dominated occupation, women have also played such a diverse role that possibility of their involvement in any military duties can not be neglected. 4. Society has traditionally viewed women as out of place both in organisations responsible for the implementation of military force and in applying lethal force as individuals. The use of lethal force is so strongly associated with the ideas of masculinity that the ability to use it is one of the defining traits of mankind. War is traditionally viewed as a masculine enterprise in this man dominated society. Military service has long been a masculine rite of passage. Men have traditionally sought to idealistically fight for peace, home and family. They want to protect women and not to compete with them. The soldiers world has traditionally been a masculine haven. Their accession into a predominantly gender segregated institution like military has been protected by both law and cultural tradition in most of the countries. 5. The human achievements in the field of science and technology has changed not only the human lifestyle but has also helped to change the world order. Military activities including the organisations, roles, responsibilities and threats have also been changed with the changes that have taken place in various other sectors of life. There are lots of roles that can be played equally or even more efficiently by women in the armed forces in comparison with the men.  [5]  This study will try to find out the most suitable roles for the women in the armed forces and suggest whether the women could be employed as combatants in the armed forces or not. 6. With the induction of women the Services are now coming in line with the main stream, where social change in favour of the female gender began with the freedom movement. Yet, at the same time, it cannot be ignored that since the Armed Forces are extremely high-profiled, a dramatic change like this would indeed filter down to the common masses of India. There could not be a more positive experiment than this, for it has not only professional advantages for many women but also sociological benefits for them and the nation as a whole. Of course like anything new it would have teething problems. However, a mature democracy like India and its people know that given time any experiment can be molded to the advantage of everyone. Statement of Problem 7. To study and analyse the role of women in Infantry and effect on morale and op effectiveness of frontline units. Justification of the Study 8. The role of women in the armed forces for a long time, was limited to the medical profession i.e. doctors and nurses. In 1992, the doors were thrown open for women entry as regular officers in aviation, logistics, law, engineering and executive cadres. Thousands of spirited young women applied against advertisements and it was a turning point in the history of time. These women chose a new field where they had to painstakingly pave a path for the others to follow. The initial adjustment problems werent as much for the women as it was for the men. Wrapped in their tradition of chivalry and respect to women, most gentlemen officers could not treat their female counterparts at par with themselves.  [6]  Their subordinates too, were men who came from conservative families where they saw women playing only traditional roles. The emergence of these women into totally male dominated bastions did initially create embarrassing moments for both. Men hushed their talks and behaved courte ously, while women had to do with makeshift arrangements to suit their needs within units. Over the years and having come a long way now, men have realized that these women in uniform are their efficient and able co-workers. The time is not far when we may use the term sisters-in-arms as equivalent to brothers-in-arms. 9. Currently, women in the non-medical cadre, serve as Short Service Commissioned (SSC) officers. Under this type of commission, they can serve in the armed forces for a period ranging from 5-14 years. On release they can pursue a career in the civil sector. Now women have start clamouring for opening up of the permanent commission in the armed forces and also to be part of Infantry units to ensure equality of opportunity. Employment of women in combat has become a hot issue at present. Two different schools of thought do exist amongst the scholars. The first claim that women are equally capable of men to perform the job and its the matter of equality also, whereas the supporters of latter idea claim that it is the exploitation of women to employ in combat because they are not physically and psychologically fit to perform the job. This debate needs to be carried out in detail. 10. There are numerous examples of women taking part in battles in the past. Indeed, throughout human history, most societies have kept women from fighting with the frontline troops. Those women who fought were often forced by circumstances or were given a chance only when men were in short supply. In essence, most societies have restricted women from serving in the military as they have restricted them from other male-dominated occupations.  [7]   11. This study is prompted by a soldier scholars long abiding interest in the subject triggered off by great interaction with some ardent feminists of the National Cadet Corps during his college years. The aim of this study is to analyse the issues involved in the Indian context on the induction of women as personal below officers rank in the Army, blanking out the interference of noise and dust raised by over enthusiastic social scientists, ivory tower scholars and militant feminists, to bring out the core issues involved. Scope 12. In this study a brief historical perspective of women in combat roles will be discussed followed by roles performed by the women in the armed forces. Womens involvement in insurgency and the requirement and employment of women in combat will be the major aspect of the study. Methods of Data Collection 13. The research methodology adopted for this study is by descriptive and analytical method. The sources of this study are the books, periodicals and newspapers available in the Defence Services Staff College library. Similarly the other sources include internet web pages, previous studies in the similar field and some informal interaction with the student officers from various countries attending the 68th staff course. The Bibliography of sources is appended at the end of text. Organisation of the Study 14. The study is presented in nine chapters as under:- Introduction Historical Perspective Issues involved in inducting women in the frontlines units in armed forces. Expanded role prospects. Experiences of women in combat. Summary and recommendations. Conclusion. CHAPTER II HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE As the ladies clad in their saries marched past to the sound of the bugle and the beatings of the drum, there could be traced not a touch of all the frailties that are so commonly attributed to them. No faltering, no hesitancy, no softness associated in popular minds with the womanhood of Bengal but chivalry written on every face and manifest in every movement. Colonel Latika Ghosh. 15. Mythology is replete with instances of warrior women who were revered, worshipped like the `Shakti, consort of Shiva the Destroyer, mother of all warriors, and who manifested herself as Durga the warrior goddess, to fight and destroy evil. The Greek Goddess Athena, the Roman Diana, the Nordic Valkyries and the Amazons are cases in point. 16. The ancient Greeks, for example, Amazons so dedicated to warfare that each one of hem cut off one of their breast to improve her ability to shoot and throw spears. The Americans can point to colonist Margaret Corbin who, during the British attack on Fort Washington in the Revolutionary War, operated a cannon until she was seriously wounded. In the history of women in battle there is a combination of myth and exaggeration, sprinkled with a few true heroic accounts of unique women. Through out history, most societies have banned women from military service. As was the case in Soviet Union during World War II. .  [8]   17. Instances of warrior women are scattered all over history. The Celtic Queen Boadicea, Joan of Arc of France and nearer home Razia Sultan, Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, Kittur Chinnamma Rani Durgawati of Gondwana, Chand bibi of Ahmednagar are good examples of women fighters. Our freedon movement is replete with examples of courageous women leaving the Chaar Diwari of their household to secure freedom from the British Sarojini Naidu, Kamala Devi Chattopadhya, Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kriplani, revolutionaries like Durga Bhabhi, Bina Das, Shanti Gosh and Suniti Chaudhary2 and in the Indian National Army, Colonel Latika Ghosh and Captain Lakshmi Sah ­gal Kshatriya are just a few of the prominent names. 18. But despite all the above, the number of women warriors is minuscule. This highlights the fact that due to whatever physiological or sociological reasons, society at large evolved a role for the women in professions of nurture and culture rather than soldiering. We hear of women, as great mothers, wives and sisters who have nurtured famous warriors more than as famous generals or leaders of men in battle. This becomes obvious when one notices that no force of soldiery ever travelled far without its detachment of wives, concubines and hangers on, who cheerfully shouldered the burdens of washing, mending, cooking and generally pandering to the creature comforts, which have been the indispensable requirement of contended troops. 19. Nations world over have in recent times taken the momentous decision to admit women into the regular cadres of the armed forces. This raises the query of why women are being brought into the realms of soldiery. One does not have to look deep to fathom the reasons for this development. The increasing presence of women in the Armed Forces can be traced to the beginning of this century in European history, wherein, the World Wars created an acute shortage of manpower, forcing nations to call upon their women to supplement their forces. Women were inducted in large numbers into the softer military specialities like ordinance factory workers, rear area services, logistic support, nurses, doctors, staff car driver, et al; relieving the able bodied men to feed the cannons. 20. In Britain women gained recognition in Womens Auxiliary Service as early as 1916 upto the midst of World War I. The erstwhile Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Vietnam have permitted uninhibited participation of women in combat. Amongst the western countries, Canada, Australia, and Denmark are the most liberal in induction of women in their Armed Forces even for combat roles. In Netherlands all posts are optional for women. The Dutch have had to impose demanding physical standards for some mens only jobs.  [9]   21. Canada opened its Armed Forces to women at the behest of Royal commission on status of women in 1970. A five-year programme called SWINTER (Service Women In Non Traditional Environment and Roles), launched to assess their suitability in combat roles demolished many myths and inhibitions which led to Canadas Human rights Tribunal to demand full integration for women and abolish 10% quota of vacancies reserved for them. 22. In Soviet Russia, where all kinds of feminine labour prevailed, out of sheer imbalance in sex ratio, a bulk of women were allowed to join the Army. A welcome side effect of this enforced equality was improved physical strength of Russian women and their robust character. In China the anti-female practices abetted by Confucius, Liu Shao Chi and Lin Piao were denounced as archaic and to ensure equality to women the Chinese leadership promoted their wide participation in womens militia, who provided armed support to political leadership against any possible counter revolution from old vested interests.  [10]   23. In more recent times the Israelis pressed by sheer paucity of numbers have enforced a virtual draft on unmarried women to occupy posts from where men could be released to move to front positions. In France the intake of women is divided into combat and non-combat roles in the three services and the Gendarmerie on long-term contract. Turkey, which is predominantly Islamic, has women in her regular Armed Forces. In Sep 90 King Fahd of Saudi Arabia approved a role for women in the Saudi Armed Forces.This has been followed by United Arab Emirates.10 In Iraq too, during the Iran-Iraq war, President Saddam Hussain, in an effort to strengthen more loyal Baathist Militias, enlisted some quarter million women into their womens wings. Arming them much against the wishes of religious factions, he proudly hailed this force as the most liberated in the muslim world. Domestic Scene At the time of constitution making, the equality of women (Article 14), discrimination against them (Article 15) and equal opportunity for employment (Article 16) were thoroughly dealt with in accordance with the obtaining social ambience. It was considered prudent to insert Articles 16(3) and 33 in order to exempt our Armed Forces from the provisions of the Fundamental Rights with regard to employment of women. The contemporaneous leadership of that era accepted norms of equality. The fact that the post Independence Indian thinking was so over optimistic about the future of non-use of army itself that any idea of womens participation in it must have looked ludicrous to many a statesmen. That position still continues and the constitutional provision remains binding. The Army Act and the Air Force Act of 1950, the Navy act of 1957, stipulate that women are ineligible for enrolment and any deviation to this proviso could only be made through a special notification. A government sancti on is thus mandatory for all cases of entry of women to our Armed Forces. Existing employment of women in the army Medical Corps (AMC) and the Army Dental corps (ADC) has been regularised. This legal barrier is not difficult to overcome but no organisation, group or a forum has so far felt any compulsion to challenge it. Absence of public opinion to modify the regulation that has over a period of time become irrelevant is only helping those who opine that we (Indians) are not ready to allow women in our Armed Forces. The constitutional allowance to keep women from joining military service has been conveniently used by our service headquarters to ward off whatever pressure there is from the hopefuls amongst female population. Thu this urge of the latter is not a recent phenomenon.  [11]   In the modern day of electronic warfare, its more about overcoming stress in warfare than physical combat. It has been proven scientifically that women handle stress better and are also mentally tougher. This is not to undermine a womans physical capability. Women have done extremely well in physical training as well. In the first few batches at the armed forces training academies women displayed more endurance and some even outran their male counterparts in cross-country runs and long distance marches.  [12]  They carry on this tradition and keep setting new records. As commissioned officers at the age of 22-23 years, they may often have subordinates older than their parents. Hence, from day one, it is a challenge and leadership qualities are under test. The color of their crisp uniforms and the stars/stripes they adorn differentiate them from each other. Despite the good quality of life, they may sometimes undergo hardships due to the nature of work. An officer may have to work in tough terrains or difficult circumstances. Most women however, who undergo training as cadets in various military academies, cope up with various difficult situations, easily. Being a transferable job, transfers and movements are seen as unique travel opportunities to travel to remotest locations in the country. Every unit is a mini-India with people and cultures as diverse. As most lady officers are married to gentlemen officers in the armed forces, as per government policies, they are transferred together. Women officers can also avail of maternity leave; furlough and annual leave in succession, to cater to pre and post-natal care. On retirement too, they enjoy medical facilities and coveted club memberships. They can afford to maintain the same quality of life due to the various benefits they can avail of. Their experience and qualities imbibed while in service make them much in demand in the private sector. Although the path these women have chosen is tough, they have proved that they have the spirit, the courage and the will to carry on. Presently, women do not serve in combat arms nor do they fly fighter aircrafts, but it wont be long before these forbidden avenues are thrown open to them.  [13]   CHAPTER III ISSUES INVOLVED IN INDUCTING WOMEN IN THE FRONTLINES UNITS IN ARMED FORCES 26. The Indian experiment of permitting women in the regular cadres of the three services is very recent. There is hardly any previous study on the subject of women in the Indian Army as commissioned officer in general and a permanent commissioned officer in particular, rising to the ranks of a General. Naturally, therefore any discussion on the subject has to draw upon a great deal, from the available material based on the concepts and experiences of the Western Armies. Most of the issues are not culture specific but rather gender based, hence if not all, a majority of issues concerning women in uniform are likely to apply across the board to Indian women in military services as well. There are two points that must be analysed before we can properly address the question of whether or not women should be granted permanent commission in the officer cadre. Firstly, the nature of the army as an institution and secondly, the nature of working environment itself according to career profile. If the army was just a job, and if justice and equal opportunity was all that was at stake, there would be no opposition to opening up all opportunities to every one. After all, women have demonstrated their competence in all areas of society, from medicine and the law to business and the academies.  [14]  They have benefited from capitalism and technology. The lifting of legal barriers against women in the civilian workplace has merely ratified the technological advances that have rendered physical strength less important than intellect, an area in which women are equal to men. Thus today a woman, who is willing to bear the equal burden that men have traditionally borne, can ach ieve whatever goals she desires.  [15]   The Nature Of Army The Army necessarily differs from civil society. A liber ­al democracy like ours faces a paradox when it comes to relationship between the military situations as such and society at large. The military is not governed in accordance with prin ­ciples of justice and liberalism that characterize the very society it defends. Behaviour that is acceptable, indeed even protected in civil society is prohibited in the military. The military restricts the freedom of movement of its member. It restricts speech, prohibits certain relationships between members, such as fraternization. Why? Because if the military fails, the society it protects may not survive. Experience has taught us that certain behaviour is destructive of good order, discipline and morale, without which a military organisation will certainly fail. The goal of military policy is military effectiveness. Hence two sets of values are on a collision course. Military and Civil. Equality and opportunity are noble ideals but they have no place in the battlefield where it is a question of living and dying. This was succinctly summed up by American Marine Corps General Robert Barrow in a Senate hearing, It is not about womens rights, equal opportun ­ity, and career assignments for enhancement purposes for selec ­tion to higher work. It is about combat effectiveness, combat readiness, and so we are talking National Security. Nature Of Working Environment Since the services have only seen the presence of men (except on the medical side), gentlemen officers have an attitude problem which prevents them from accepting ladies among them as co officers and this is bound to aggravate if these ladies were competing with gentlemen officers for promotions as well. However the fact that the gentlemen officers have the choice of a permanent commission gives them a professional security. Although they perceive the lady officers as a short-term threat now, it will aggravate once this threat becomes a long-term threat. Further, the socio cultural pattern of patriarchal domination prevents the gentlemen officers from accepting lady officers as social equals. Traits that are chauvinistically associated by men for women in society are piled upon the lady officers as well. Whereas for those lady officers to whom a career in the services is what they want to do in life; the sense of job insecurity is like a Damocles Sword hanging over their heads. Many dont know exactly what they will do after having served in a career which is high commitment and high risk one and gives them prestige, status and perks that would no longer be there once they leave the service.  [16]   Further during the service years of a gentlemen officer in the army, be it supporting arm or combat arm, he is on a whirlwind tour of the country to include the inhospitable high altitude terrain of the North, the dry sultry sand dunes of the deserts in the West, the rain and leech infested jungles of the Northeast and long tenures of deployment on the International Border or the Line of Control without even the basic necessities of life. Under such conditions when the lady officers are also expected to stand by the side of their male counterparts notwithstanding the occupational hazards draws out certain physical and physiological issues involved with their behaviour. The issues thrown up are:- Physical and physiological issues. Unit Cohesion and Military Effectiveness. Sociological issues. Administrative issues. Physical Issues Women if granted commission in Infantry may be called upon to serve in combat zone sometime or the other, in her career. The most common reason for opposing women in combat is that they largely lack the physical strength to perform effectively in a combat environ ­ment. Studies conducted in the United States have observed that on average men are 40 percent stronger than women. Contrary to what some seem to believe, technology has not overcome the importance of physical strength in the Army. Brawn will count for more than `computer smarts any day. It is felt that when women cannot meet the requirements or rigours of a job; men must take up the slack.  [17]   Body Composition / Muscular Strength / Cardio-Respiratory Capacity. The West point and General Accounting Office (GAO) studies reveal that body composition (both physical and anatomic) favors men. Specifically women experience more difficulty in lifting heavy loads, road marching, carrying loads, running and throwing than men do. Women generally require more time to perform these tasks. Additionally they must perform at higher percentage of their physical abilities, leading to earlier fatigue. The reasons are that they have less muscle mass, more fat, which accumulates on buttocks, arms and thighs which lowers the center of gravity offering more resistance when running. They have less bone mass, wider pelvic structure and lower aerobic capacity than men.  [18]   Injury. Research findings have indicated a high risk for injuries during Army basic combat training. During training, 51% of women and 27% of men were injured which was related to a lower level of fitness when compared to men and resulted in an average time loss of 13 days training. During this study, women participated in an integrated conditioning programme and completed extensive road marches wearing combat boots. Incidence of injury was related to greater body weight and body fat and limited leg strength.  [19]   Physiological Issues Pregnancy is a major female health issue, which contributes to major attrition among women in the Army. During pregnancy, womens duties are often severely curtailed. This curtailment typically includes: no field duty, limited physical training, limited standing at attention. Many women experience severe premenstrual syndromes. This problem can be potentially dysfunctional for units with many lady officers. This is especially true if there is an involuntary tendency for women living in close quarters to synchronize their menstrual cycles.  [20]   However in an interview during the Gulf War some women soldiers who got pregnant told no one and stuck it out because they did not want to let their team down. Other women soldiers had their babies and six months later rejoined their units. Women in Army advocates argue that the average woman is pregnant for a very small portion of her productive life. There are many women who never become pregnant. They argue that data are inconclusive about pain and discomfort of menstruation. Rather women are more conscious of their health problems than men which explains a higher incidence of routine medical visits by women than men.  [21]   Legal Issues The Constitutions in most developed countries including India provide for equality in l

Rise Of Nazism And Consolidation Of Power

Rise Of Nazism And Consolidation Of Power Although the Nazi Party ruled Germany for more than a decade, due to a unique combination of political gift and right circumstances, their path to success wasnt an easy one. In Germany, the 1920s began with a feeling of unfulfillment, rage and dismay amongst the people due to the exceedingly harsh treaty of Versailles imposed upon them. In those same early post-war years, the Nazi Party was extremely futile in the Reichstag, even eclipsed by the Communist Party (KPD) and the Socialist Party (SPD). Stresemanns enormous successes, during his reign as Chancellor, in the form of the Weimar Golden Years as well as Hitlers imprisonment post the unsuccessful and humiliating Munich Putsch, both contributed towards the diminutive influence of the Nazis with less than 2% of the votes in the Reichstag initially. The initial cause for the unpopularity of the Nazi party in the early 1920s was the outcome of the Munich Putsch; the imprisonment of Adolf Hitler, the Party leader. Senior Party members imprisonment and the widespread exposure of their proceedings in court by the media did bring the Nazi Party along with its ideas into the limelight, but unfortunately for the unfavorable reasons. The SA, or more commonly known as the brown shirts, were formed by Hitler as a Nazi military force consisting of army officers who were unemployed due to the Treaty of Versailles, with the sole motive to protect Nazi meetings, disrupt opposition meetings and be of use during rallies. However subsequent to the Munich Putsch, the SA men were considered to be undignified hooligans and were disliked due to their violent methods of functioning. The 1920s were right after the Great War and an extremely mortifying and severe Treaty of Versailles. During this time of chaos and mayhem, the last thing the people wanted was an unstable and a fragile governing body. They sought after a leadership that ensured stability, consolidation and progressive recovery in the tenuous post-war years. The extremist and radical ideology of the Nazis was regarded as too rebellious and seditious by the general people. The Nazi idea for the German nation, in regard to their ideology, was of a nation with pure German people working mutually to achieve a flourishing and successful future. Hitler perceived the Aryans to be the most superior race in the world and the one which was at the top of the hierarchy of races. This policy of racial purity was obtained from the theory of Social Darwinism; the survival of the fittest in any struggle between the races. An important part on Hitlers beliefs was the idea to build a lebensraum, a living quarter for t he purest race; the Aryans, in the Eastern European USSR region as part of his eastward expansion. These principles, although majority of them were adopted from the manifestos of other parties, symbolized a revolutionary perspective that further ensured instability, violence and hostility, which the people firmly disapproved of. The Nazi Party was analogous to the other extremist parties, and possessed no original or convalescing ideas. Even the hard-line anti-communist approach gravely affected the acceptance of the Nazi Party by eliminating the crucial support of the workers. Furthermore, Hitlers ideas of Anti-Semitism wherein he blamed a religion and its followers as the causes of the negativity in the world were of great concern. Historians believe that Anti-Semitism acted as a self-inflicted obstacle in Hitlers political career from the beginning till the end. People did not exactly share the same enthusiasm as Hitler as far as his policies of discrimination or his extremist ideology were concerned. One more imperative cause for the lack of Nazi success in the 1920s was the extremely lucrative appointment of Gustav Stresemann as the Chancellor of the Weimar Republic. Amidst the ongoing panic and hysteria due to the Ruhr Crisis and the Hyperinflation, Stresemann still managed to recover from the situation and succeed in numerous ways to begin what were known as the Golden Years. He gained immense admiration and respect from the people due to his recovery, as well as progress in the fields of Culture, Economy, Politics and Foreign Relations. The extremely crucial and constructive economic assistance, in the form of the Dawes and the Young Plans from US, gave financial aid to Germany, put a momentary freeze on reparations and also reduced the total amount of the same. Through this support, Stresemann managed to revive German industries and work towards a more stable and prosperous economy. The boosting investment in Germany subsequent to these plans facilitated in creating more factories, jobs and hence prosperity, in terms of higher wages and increased production figures in the entire nation. In the course of this recovery, the professional life as well as the standard of living of the people in Germany drastically improved. This retrieval of an affluent German economy gave the indication that democracy was effectively functioning in Germany, which in turn, minimized the support for extremist parties such as the Nazis. The flourishing culture under the policy of Neue Sachlichkeit or the letting go of traditionalism and focusing more on the functionality of art, and the Bauhaus Movement, which paved way for modern and contemporary architecture was a great success for the republic. A new era of writers, musicians, actors and artists embarked, which was recognized all over the world and was also immensely acknowledged by the people of Germany. The minimal censorship paved way for greater innovations and encouraged new forms of expression. These advancements made Germany the center of the cultural world which in turn bought a lot of pride and honor for the German people. Furthermore, it had an effect of escalating the popularity of the amenable republic and diverted the attention of the people from revolutionary parties such as the Nazis. The Weimar Years also witnessed remarkable triumphs in the area of Foreign Relations. The pacifying approach with the allies in order to gain concessions over the commitments of Germany in the Treaty of Versailles was a major accomplishment in regard to the Locarno Treaties, wherein Germany acknowledged its western borders as part of the Treaty of Versailles, but made no agreements about its eastern borders. Post these treaties, Germany was made a Permanent Security Council Member in the League of Nations. This had the outcome of altering the viewpoint of the German people in terms of making it buoyant and optimistic. Through these proceedings, Stresemann accomplished a willful attempt to contravene the clauses of the slave treaty, which was received with high enthusiasm and admiration by the German people. These signs of not abiding by the Treaty of Versailles ensured that the Nazi Party, with its extremist ideology, could not distract the support of the republic, which consecutivel y ascended the support of the same. The Nazi Party saw grave failures in the 1920s due to no clear path or direction, lack of popularity and most importantly the success of the Weimar Republic. However, the Golden Years of the Weimar Republic did end due to its reputation (burden of lost war and humiliating Treaty of Versailles) and most importantly the Great Depression of 1929. The Depression and the need of radical solutions didnt themselves bring the Nazis to power but created an audience for the Nazi Propaganda and ensured it wasnt falling on deaf ears. Assignment 1 (Depth Study A Germany 1918-45) Topic Rise of Nazism and consolidation of power Q2. What factors enabled the growth of Hitlers power in post war Germany? (10 marks) Although the Weimar Republic was exceedingly successful by escalating the popularity for the republic during the Stresemann era, the support never grew to an extent that the general sentiments of mistrust and abhorrence could be ignored. The use of emergency powers during the end of the republics supremacy, to run the government, depicted the failure of the Weimar Republic and the democratic system itself. The proportional representation in the Reichstag resulted in no one party taking control with an overall majority, which in turn saw the failures of various coalition governments in the office. The desire of the people for a leader who ensured stability and progress remained as an aspiration during the rise of unpopular leaders and the turmoil of the republic. On one hand was the chaos and disorder of the republic, but on the other hand, extremist parties such as the Nazis seemed as worthy alternatives to the republic due to their order and discipline. There is a saying that every big economical crisis is most likely to give rise to dictatorship. This holds true in Germany also as the Nazis gained enormously through the Great Depression of 1929. This global crisis sank all major support for the republic due to the dreadfully affected working population of Germany, especially the middle class. The Nazis were amongst the few parties who opposed the US aid in the form of the Dawes and Young Plan, fearing dollar imperialism. The crisis had an immediate effect of popularizing those very parties (such as the Nazis) who expressed fear of dependency on dollar. Depression didnt itself bring the Nazis to power but created an opportunity, possibility and an audience for Nazi propaganda. It lead to destruction of the republic and popularized those with radical solutions to the economic crisis. The economic crisis left two strong parties, with radical solutions, in the Reichstag; the Nazis and the Communists. Ironically, after the Great Depression, the growing strength of communism rather helped than hindered the Nazi Party. The Nazis increased their vote bank by receiving crucial votes from businessmen and other elite people simply because of the threat of communism on their businesses. Along with the support of the middle class through the re-organization of the party, the Nazis were now popular amongst the higher class too. Along with the threat of communism, the Nazis expressed their views dramatically and gave the skeptical public someone to blame. The minority groups such as the Jews, Communists, physically and mentally disabled as well as the detested republic were blamed for the crisis. This blame later transformed into policies of segregation, which later solved the problem of unemployment caused by Depression. In this time of predicament, Hitler, through propaganda campaigns, portrayed himself and his party leaders as firm, strong and proposed several new campaigns in order to solve the crisis, which was sincerely appreciated by the people. In addition, the Nazi Party benefited immensely due to their leader; Adolf Hitler. Despite his minimal knowledge about administration and economy, he still managed to appeal to mass audiences due to his brilliant oratory skills. He was a magnificent, influential speaker and made German people feel patriotic about their nation. Furthermore, Hitler benefitted immensely through his Propaganda Leader, Joseph Goebbels, who was the true creator and organizer of the Fuhrer myth, of feeding the theatrical element in the Nazi leader while at the same time stimulating the self-surrender of the German masses through skilful stage management and manipulation. Goebbels was exceedingly successful in his mission of selling Hitler to the German public and orchestrating the party under the Fuhrer as the savior of Germany from the republic, Jews, profiteers and Communists. The strong opposition the republic had to face; in terms of the Nazis in the right wing and the KPD and the SPD in the left wing, made the decision making of the republic through a consensus and majority extremely complex. The Weimar years also saw a shift from parliamentary to presidential rule through the Article 48 which gave President Hindenburg the constitutional framework to undermine democracy. This meant that the Reichstag could be dissolved whenever the President desired it to. This process of undermining democracy through the frequent use of Article 48 and a behind the scenes deal between Hitler, Hindenburg and Von Papen gave Hitler the legal route to success in terms of bringing the Nazis to power without them gaining 51% majority in the Reichstag. Furthermore, the Weimar Republic had a reputation based on lost war and an unfair humiliating Treaty of Versailles. Hitler, during his rallies and marches, stated frequently that he wished to undo the Treaty of Versailles and was deeply disgusted with the republic for signing it in the first place. Although Hitlers accusations on the republic werent very substantial, the humiliation faced by the people was enough for Hitler to gain their support against the republic. Despite not getting a 51% majority in the Reichstag, Hitler still managed to get his Nazi Party to power. Even though Hitler wasnt destined to be the Chancellor, he got lucky with political gift (Role of Hindenburg) and right circumstances (depression). Using the absence of the Communist Party and the Socialists due to Reichstag fire as an opportunity, Hitler passed the Enabling Law in 1933. This law gave Hitler, as the Chancellor of Germany, the power to rule by decree. This law meant the end of democracy in Germany and established the legal dictatorship of Adolf Hitler. Assignment 1 (Depth Study A Germany 1918-45) Topic Rise of Nazism and consolidation of power Q3. How did Hitler consolidate his power in 1933-34? (10) Although the Weimar Republic did collapse leading to Hitler eventually becoming the chancellor of Germany in 1933, he still needed to consolidate and strengthen his position in order to fulfill his aims of a totalitarian and pure German nation. However, after being appointed Chancellor, Hitler found himself to be in a precarious situation wherein only 2 out of 9 cabinet members were Nazis. Hitlers insecurity in the form of President Hindenburgs authority over the appointment as well as the dismissal of a Chancellor, and the discontent of the army made the situation further uncertain. Viewing this, very few couldve anticipated that this man would go on to be the Fuhrer of the nation. The first extremely vital incident which took place in Feb 1933 was the Reichstag fire. The Nazis held the communists responsible for starting the fire and over exaggerated the dangers of the communist threat. The Decree for the Protection of the People and State was passed the following day, wherein President Hindenburg, using Article 48, suspended all civil rights in Germany. It gave the government the authority to arrest individuals without trial as well as the secret police to hold people indefinitely in protective custody. 4000 communists were taken into custody that very day. Hitler got supplementary powers through this decree and used it to get rid of opposition. In regard to the authoritarianism granted by President Hindenburg, Hitler took the most significant Nazi step of controlling Germany; the Enabling Law of 24th March 1933. This law meant that the cabinet, chancellor could pass any decrees without the Presidents involvement. This law needed 213 majority as constitutional amendment. Although it was an exceedingly demanding law to pass, under watchdog eyes of the SS and SA, the law passed by 441 vs. 94 in the Reichstag, with only opposition from the SPD. It was a great triumph for Hitler as he not only got dictatorship powers but was now exceptionally close to being the ultimate ruler of Germany. The Enabling Law gave Hitler immense supremacy in the form of passing laws without consulting the President or the Reichstag. What ensue subsequent to this Enabling Act were a series of laws. There was the Law of Restoration of Professional Civil Services wherein administration, courts, education purged of all alien elements; the Jews, communists. This law also extended into all public service, resulting in the elimination of thousands of Jews. This was the first instance when Hitler took a step in regard to his policy of Anti-Semitism against the Jews. Through this law, Hitler was creating the Aryan race as the superior one in Germany, which in turn was part of his aims for creating the lebensraum (living quarters in the east) for the purest race; the Aryans. Although the KPD and the socialists were forbidden from entering the Reichstag, Hitler yet again did not manage to get 51% majority in the Reichstag elections in March 1933. Following this defeat, Hitler began what was termed as the influence over the media. The government took control of the radio and press, and Goebbels was appointed as the head of the new Ministry for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. This meant that the Nazis were now controlling what the people of Germany were viewing and hearing. On May 2nd 1933, one day after the Day of National Labour, Hitler seized all trade union offices and incorporated all unions into the newly created German Labour Front (DAF). This way Hitler cleared off all potential threats or strikes to the German industries, amalgamated all the labour unions under one Nazi led union, and also established power over the working class of Germany. In regard to politics, Hitler passed the Law against Formation of New Parties in July. The KPD and the SPD had already been banned earlier, and other small parties had dissolved themselves. Through this law no new parties were permitted to form in the Reich. This leads to the conclusion that there was only one party remaining in Germany; the Nazi Party, and hence Germany was now a single party state. This denoted that Hitler had now cleared off all resistance as well as all probable future opposition to the Nazi Party. The Nazis were now ruling Germany and although not affirmed, Germany was now under dictatorship. The opposition from the workers as well as the parties was now terminated; thus it left only one viable rebellion to the Nazi dictatorship; the church. There was a Concordat signed in July, in which there was a mutual conformity between the state and the church in regard to which the church banned all political activity and in turn the government protected religious autonomy. This was the concluding step to pave a clear path for the Nazi dictatorship of Germany. Now the parliament, workers, as well as the church were under Nazi influence. The final, but a tremendously essential, significant and successful incident for the Nazis was the Night of The Long Knives. After procuring Chancellorship of Germany, the SA had been a form of humiliation and embarrassment for Hitler due to their awfully violent approach. The SA as well as its leader Ernst Rohm also posed as a threat to Hitler due to their aspiration of a second revolution in Germany and of being the main military unit in the Nazi regime. Hitler persuaded Hindenburg by accusing the SA of plotting a revolt in opposition to the government and prepared a plan which is better known as the Night of the Long Knives in History. Hitler got rid of most of the SA leaders including Ernst Rohm, the chief of the SA. Also using the authoritarianism presented by Hindenburg, Hitler skillfully used the situation to his advantage by getting rid of major hostility, including Strasser and Schleicher, Hitlers predecessors. Although the killings took place over the weekend, this event is termed as the Night of The Long Knives due to 2000 people being exterminated in one night. This incident proved enormously successful for the Nazis as the killing of the SA officials as well as the public vote of thanks by President Hindenburg brought Hitler immense popularity. Through this happening, Hitler portrayed himself as the just leader of Germany and gave the people the impression that he will not tolerate indiscipline and offenses, may it be in his own party, by his own party members. Also Hitler pleased the army by removing their constant alarming threat of the SA through this event. All these events consolidated Nazi power over Germany and eventually established hard lined Nazi dictatorship. After the death of Hindenburg, the last political figure who could possibly oppose Hitler, in July 1934, it was time for Hitler to take the last and final step. Hitler amalgamated the position of Chancellor and President to become the Fuhrer. The army tolerated Hitlers actions and the armed forces swore an oath of loyalty to Hitler in August 1934. What followed was autocracy, under Adolf Hitler, for more than a decade in Germany.